A Short History of Flower Arranging
By Rhiannon de la Meadue du Lue
As a person who has grown up with flowers all over the yard and in the
house I really never gave much thought as to why flowers were not used much
in our Society for Creative Anachronism, or at least in the Middle Kingdom. When
this dawned on me, I have come to the conclusion that flower arrangements are
taken for granted in our modern world, no matter where we may see them; they
are part of the background. To most they are just a common every day thing,
but, to some of us flowers are a beautifully important part of our lives. Just
ask yourself; “How would we feel if flowers were suddenly gone tomorrow?”
In talking with a friend I was asked “Why don’t you research flowers during
our time period? See what you can find.” I thought about it and decided to take up,
so this began the rocky road of researching flower arrangements in history.
Where I was living at the time, in a small town in no-ville, it was very hard
to find any material on the history and use of flowers before 1600. I did
happen across a couple books that I immediately snatched. The books I needed
had to be special ordered from the library through interlibrary loan. For some
reason (that I will not go into here) the library I had to work through could
not get any books I would order. I tried for 4 years to get good resource
books, but never saw a one.
Then I moved and now have one of the top libraries in the country at my fingertips.
(Jumping up and down for joy) “Now maybe I can get somewhere!”, and have to an
extent. There are still records of monasteries and churches that I would love
to have a look at! But I would have to go to England, France, Italy, and Germany
for some of these. (Oh what a sacrifice that would be!), and some books were
just not loanable because of their condition or value. So
far I have not done too badly obtaining some books. Plenty of information to be
found, but it is a line here, a paragraph there. Oh, but to find that one
little piece of secluded information! That piece of information you never knew
was out there! Now that is when the heart races and you know you are alive.
The lights come on and the Angels sing! Oh, and one must also have the
proper cloth bib to catch the drool so as not to ruin the source!
As I mentioned, flowers have
always been a part of my life. When I was first shown how to arrange flowers at
the wonderful age of 9 I found a whole new world and enjoyment that I have
loved for all these years. Even when I
took jobs in flower shops, more to learn then to work, my love of this art was
not diminished in any way as has happened with many other hobbies that I have
done that turned into a business.
Flowers and flower arranging has been and always will be what I love to
do.Now if I could just find those who
would be willing to learn. I hear from people all the time, “I can’t do
that.”My answer is always: “I can teach you if you would like.” But I
have yet to have someone say, “Teach
me. I want to learn to do this!” Or even take me up on my offer.
The purpose of this paper is to
introduce you, gentle reader, to the idea that flowers were used for more than
just medicine or in gardens. That flowers were brought into the medieval home
for decoration purposes and used artistically in their own right. I will give a
bit of history about flowers, their use in arrangements, and in decorations
through time. How forces within the economy or religion changed how flowers
were used and a bit about kind of flowers, greens and pots thought to have been
used throughout history.
Now let us take a walk into the
past and find out about this elusive art in history and how it can fit in the
SCA.Where did floral decorations
originate?
As we look back at the remains of
Ancient cultures, manuscripts, written records, paintings, and archeological
findings we are given proof that flowers were used in many ways to
decorate.The 80,000-year-old flowers
found in Norway are considered to be the oldest recorded flowers found. These
flowers are thought to be related to the Hydrangea. In an archeological dig, a
Neanderthal gravesite near the village
of Shanidor in northeast Iraq was found to have bunches of flowers placed
carefully around him. All that now
remains is the pollen grains, but these were analysised, and found to be 60,00
year old cornflowers, hollyhocks, ragwort, grape hyacinths, yarrow, and St.
Barnaby’s thistle. They must have thought these plants
significant and beautiful.
Egyptian
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The Egyptians used plant
materials for decorations as far back as 2,5000 B.C. This is shown in their
carved reliefs in stone, paintings on walls, and in their pottery. Flowers were a part of the Egyptians life
events in these scenes. They used flowers in religious ceremonies, for
decorations in tombs, to decorate themselves, their building, their homes and
just about any aspect of their lives. We have evidence of their placing flower
collars around the necks of their dead, banqueting tables lavishly decorated
with bowls and baskets of flowers, fruits, and foliage. Jugs and pitchers would
have vines of leaves and flowers wrapped around them to help keep the drink
cool.
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The
Egyptians vases were very interesting in design. Some had several openings, as
the pot on the upper left shows, made to arrange flowers and plants. As one can
also see by the picture on the right, some of their design in pottery did
filter down through time, such as the urn on the bottom left or the vase on the
bottom right.Materials used for their
containers were glass, terracotta, pottery, metals, and stone. Some of the flowers we know were used were;
water lily or lotus, acacia, rose, violet, lily, narcissus, poppy, gladiolus,
lupine, jasmine, bachelor button, morning glory, and strawflower.
Chinese
The Chinese have a love and respect of nature. They placed
fresh cut flowers in water on alters in their temples and houses. To truly
understand the Chinese and their flower arrangements one must discuss the three
greatest influences on the Chinese culture: the ‘three ways of thought’,
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
Confucius was one of the Chinese
greatest teachers and philosopher. He taught restraint, propriety of behavior
and respect for one’s ancestors. This
teaching seems to have had a lasting effect on all the arts of China.
The traditional home was designed so the
main room had a small alter to worship both the household gods and the family
ancestors. On the altars would be found
ancestral tablets, incense burners, paired vessels, fresh flowers and food.
Taoism was “born” around 600
B.C.It has a deep kinship with living
animals, plants and other living items in nature such as rocks and
mountains. Tao (way) is seen as a web
of unbroken chain of which humans are only a small part in the quest for long
life and immortality. This explains the
appeal in the use of gnarled branches as the focal element in the floral
arrangements associated with this culture.
The most familiar elements of Tao are the energies called Yin and Yang.
The Yin represents the female
(passion) element. It is found in negative forces such as earth, moon, flowers,
and the autumn and winter sea colors and the shady underside of leaves. Yang, which is the Male element, is found in
dragons, mountains, positive forces and the spring seasons. In China everything
is seen as having a Yin and Yang, Female and Male, as such pairs are not
separated so there would always be a whole. The Yin and Yang are important and
essential to the harmony in a flower arrangement as they hold the universe
together. The largest and strongest
branch would show this in an arrangement that would be surrounded, supported
and balanced with flowers.
The Taoist plum or Japanese
apricot was held in such high regard in China that a special vase called mei
ping, was made for it. The vase had a small mouth and short neck to hold only a
single branch. The plum branches are gnarled and twisted showing the male,
Yang, characteristics that are prized and known as sleeping dragons. The
delicate blossoms of the plum show the female, Yin.
Colors also were very
symbolic. For example white is the
color for mourning and would be placed on a table with a portrait or name card
of the deceased. Yellow was the color
of the Manchu, Qing dynasty, the last in China.
Yellow is the Yin color for Earth.
For much the same reasons
Buddhist priests also wore yellow and made it their color for temple
decoration.Buddhism is the third of
the culture forces in the formation of Chinese thought, which slowly filtered
in from India in the first century B.C. It brought with it the reverence
for all forms of life. This also included flowers for the temple
alters.
Buddhist floral offerings were
stiff, formal, and up right in paired vases. An alter set would include a
cauldron, two candle holders, and the vases in bronze. Later vases were embellished with cloisonné
or replaced with porcelain. The lotus
has always been considered the flower of Buddha and the Goddess Kuan-Yin. It
also became the symbol for the spirit of man ascending ‘the dust of the world’
to the purity of Nirvana.
In the seventh centaury the
Buddhist monks perfected the unique art of p’en-tsai (bonsai). The evergreen
pine is the preferred plant for training into bonsai plants because it is the
most bendable of other green plants. The evergreen is the symbol of longevity,
constancy of friendship, and endurance. The traditional arrangement made up of
plum, pine, and bamboo is called the three friends of winter and is also known
as the three ways of thought, Tao. Buddhism, Confucianism.
A treatise of vase flowers by
Chang Ch’ien-ti written in 1595 is one of the most important Chinese books on
flower arranging. It discusses principles of design, selection of vases,
techniques of cutting and preservation and grades flowers in ranks of
desirability. Chang Ch’ien-ti considered mountain peonies, spring orchids,
Japanese apricots, chrysanthemums, winter sweets, daphune adoras, sweetflags,
camellias, and narcissus the most highly prized flowers to be used in
arrangements.
Roses have always been highly
prized and enjoyed as garden flowers, first coming to prominence around the
Tang Dynasty. When the Chinese Rose was introduced into Europe, it had a
profound effect in the evolution of the garden rose today.
China was one of the first
countries to design baskets specifically for holding flowers. Baskets were made
of bamboo, willow, reed, and wood. Some were lacquered for durability and
adornment.
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were spread through out other counties by way of the silk road.
Emperor Yang, 581-618 A. D. had
flowers and leaves of colored silk tied to the bare branches of trees and
shrubs in the late autumn and winter and aquatic plants made of silk in his
ponds.
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Greek and Roman
According to Greek and Roman writers, flowers were
significantly and lavishly used in the daily life of the people. But flowers
were not used so much in pots and vases as done in other periods, but used
mostly in the form of garlands, wreaths, and chaplets. Wreaths/Chaplets were worn at weddings,
exchanged by lovers, hung on doors to celebrate a birth, and in many
celebrations. The wreath was a symbol of allegiance and dedication and was
awarded in honor to poets athletes, civic leaders, victorious soldiers and
other heroes.
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The wreath was so important to the Greek lifestyle, books were written on the
proper way for wearing them along with the appropriate flowers, foliage,
symbolism and styles. Olive was
associated with weddings, myrtle a symbol of love and was sacred to Aphrodite.
Laurel was the sacred plant of Apollo and was normally given to those who were
victorious and is still given today, such as the Laurel within the Sca.
A mosaic floor of a house in Delos (second century B. C.)
a wreath and palm branch refer to the owner’s victory in a chariot race. (see
illustration to right).
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The Romans followed much of the same customs as the Greeks
as far as the use of flowers and plants, as they did with most of their
society.In Pompeii, the ruins of the
“Ghost Ship” of the Flavian period has given us great insight into daily life
of Rome. Wall paintings from the city gave us information of Garland Makers.
(below).
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One cartouche found in Pompeii shows the emblematic Putti
with a goat carrying an assortment of flowers, which are placed on a table. The
garland makers are seen constructing garlands. When done the garlands are hung
on a stand and a woman is shown making a choice.
(illustration below)
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The Roman Empire stretched from the Black Sea in the East
to the Pillars of Heracles in the west, and from Britain in the north to Egypt
in the South. After the Roman armies came the settlers brought with them Roman
customs to the other countries including their love for flowers, showing us
that flower arranging was not an isolated art.
An archeological example of wonderfully preserved wreath
of dried flowers that can be seen in the British museum, were found at Harvara
in Egypt in the tomb of a Roman matron.
The use of garlands and wreaths gave rise to the need of
having a great number of people to make these garlands and wreaths.
The garland makers were undoubtedly also the
flower arrangers of the day. The more notable families employed their own
garland makers to assure that they as nobles would have all the appropriate
garlands needed for the day.
With the great use of flowers there also became a great
need of Roman gardeners to produce these flowers and produce them they
did.The gardeners were cleaver enough
to develop areas heated with hot water and with this method large quantities of
roses and other flowers were provided all through the year.
Roses were grown by the acre and for many different
purposes, perfumes, oils, jams, and decorations for feasts and festivals being
the more prominent uses. One specific
use was the commemorative services or ‘Dies Rosationis’, for the dead are where
families would gather at a rose bedecked grave, which could be where one of our
customs today of laying a rose on a loved ones grave may have come from.
Another custom we use today, throwing rose petals for the
bride to walk on when walking down the aisle, came from the Romans throwing
rose petals in the paths of brides.
The Romans floral even survive in the law. ‘Sub Rosa’ is a legal term still used today
coming from the Roman custom of hanging a wreath of white roses from the
ceiling. All things spoken beneath this wreath were to be kept secret.
When the Roman Empire fell many monastery gardens
continued to grow many of the plants that had been used by the Romans. Roses
being the most prominent of these, Laurel, Lily, Iris, Honeysuckle, Narcissus,
Violet, Daisy, Myrtle, Ivy, and Olive among a few to mention.
One important link to flower arranging through time is the
Roman mosaic Basket of Flowers found in Hadrian’s villa and is now found in the
Vatican Museum. This mosaic is dated to be from the second century A. D. This
grouping of mixed colorful flowers is just a beginning of what arrangements
there would be in later period.
The Middle Ages
With the fall of the Roman Empire came war and Religious
strife in Europe. The art of flower arranging went into an eclipse for a few
hundred years. Warring feudal lords kept the countryside in a state of
upheaval. Only the necessary work of farming continued out of the need to
provide food and medicines for the people and livestock. The arts that were not
absolutely necessary to survive at the time were not of importance and were not
extensively done. This and poor record keeping caused them to loose many arts
that were very important before this time period in Western Europe.
The Dark Ages were also the time of religious change from
Pagan to Christianity, which resulted in a more restricted and spartan way of
life and thought was also a
cause of the loss of flower arranging. The Church thought that offering flowers
to the Gods was blaspheme, because one was not giving their whole thought to
God but to other things. In time the Church would change their views of this
and this would help to bring back the art of flower arranging.
If we look behind the secluded walls of the
monasteries, we see where a more personal, but useful garden is grown. Plants
were grown primarily for their usefulness and medicinal purposes; few were
grown only for decorative uses alone.
It is mentioned by Goody and Webb in their books that
around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the churches started using flowers
for decorations. It seems that flowers underwent a more extensive change to
specifically represent “Our Lady”.The
renaming of these flowers from the garden and field made them more acceptable
for use in the Christian Church.
This shows us that the Church had much influence and control during this time.
A few examples of the renamed flowers are:
Alchemilla - Our Lady’s Mantle
Ribbon Grass - Our Lady’s Ribands or Garters
Bird’s foot Trefoil (Slipper Orchid) - Our Lady’s Slipper
Canterbury Bells (Foxglove) - Our Lady’s Gloves
Portulaca - Our Lady’s Purse
Primula – Our Lady’s Candlestick
Solomon’s Seal - Our Lady’s Seal
Clematis - Virgin’s Bower
Ground Ivy - Herb of the Madonna
Mint - Herbae Sanctae Mariae
Lungwort - Our Lady’s Tears
Lily - The Madonna Lily
It was a hard, slow climb for flowers to be used for
pleasure, but as time moves on so does knowledge.
This change of thought was recorded in altarpieces, painting, and
frescoes by Giotto (1266-1337).
Examples are found of garlands once again
being given to winners of games, dances, and poetry in Germany until the 1500s.
A crown of roses could be given to a superior as a sign of submission or as
feudal rents in France and England dating from 1124 A. D. This is just a start to the extensive use of
flower to come for decorative purposes once again.
Later in the Renaissance there is a great resurgence of
the arts.This means we have more to
work with because of better record keeping and the visual arts/paintings being
a good source.
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Sometimes flowers would be the main focus of the painting
or used as an accent in a portrait. As in the portrait of “A Lady of the Medici
Court” by Justus Sustermans, showing the accent of flowers beside the lady
(below).
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Or the portrait of “The Painter and his Wife” by the Master
of Frankfurt, 15th century
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On the table
is a pottery jar with a few field flowers thrust in it. The couple seems to be
casually dressed or it could be that they are poor.
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Or the
ever-famous Thomas Moore Picture by Hans Holbein the original painted in 1530.
Or the copy by Rowland Lockey done in the later 1500s.
As we look at these two
pictures we see a few changes to the copy. We can see the addition and removal
of some people, the addition of animals, and even some changes to the
background. But we see that the flower arrangements were still included and
stayed pretty much the same style. This gives us just a few examples of flowers
being used as accent pieces in portraits.
We find flowers in vases sitting on mantels, in alcoves, and as table
decoration.
We even find in Georgiana
Reynolds Smith book, Table Decoration, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, a picture
taken from the book Il Trinciante written by Vincenzo Cervio
in1593 (above).
This table seems to be
decorated with garlands of greens, fruits, and flowers, with the greens worked
in a latticed pattern.The casual table
setting suggests that this may be a side table used for carving rather than
dinning at.Wouldn’t this be a
wonderful addition of color and festiveness to our dinning rooms today?!
As we can see some of these
arrangements are grander in looks, scale, and quantity and some are very simply
done depending on the occasion and wealth of the owner. If one was not wealthy the flower
arrangement would certainly be made of less costly flowers and there would not
be as an elaborate display.If the
arrangements were for a wealthy noble then we would find a larger bouquet of
roses, iris, peonies, carnations, some exotic flowers or a combination of any
of the above along with an abundance of greens, placed in a metal, ceramic, or
porcelain vase.In a noble house bold
flower arrangements could be used just to brighten a corner or to freshen the
air or used as a sign of wealth.Not
many could afford flowers in winter so with this show of wealth also came the
thought of power.The more money the
more power a person had.
With the wider use of flowers
again came the need for larger gardens, which meant a need for more gardeners
since the nobles did not do the gardening themselves.
At first few gardeners were found outside
the monasteries, because most gardens were found inside the monastery
walls.
The monk in charge of the
garden was known as Gardinady, a Roman word, which meant gardener-florist.
Not only was this monk in charge of the
monastery gardens, but he was also to decorate the church with the appropriate
flowers.The Sacriatan supervised the
monastery gardens, who at Abington, had to rent the gardens from the
Gardinarius.
An early mention of gardinum Sacristae appears
to be at Winchester from the 9th century. The gardens there still
have the name “Paradise”.
As time passed more nobles
wanted the convenience of their own gardeners and the private gardens of the
nobles also added to the looks of the noble’s house and again indicated
wealth.
Once the abundant need for
flowers caused a problem in supply in the wintertime. Gardeners would have
wooden or stone buildings built and heat them. This was mostly done with the
citrus trees such as oranges and lemon because these trees were so desirable.
The first gardens grown for the
nobles were fairly easy in planning including a few trees, flowers, and seats
of grass.The 13th century
would see the gardens start to become more complicated through time until
gardens would have structures, topiaries, labyrinths, and statuary.
The Royal garden at Westminster
in the 13th century was known for its abundance of roses and lilies.
In the Earl of Lincoln’s garden only roses were given special names while the
other flowers, i.e. lilies, iris, geraniums, poppies, carnations, etc kept
their regular known names.
There were special flowers and
aromatic plants grown for household use, making chaplets, to spread and cover
the floors of the home, for perfumes, toilet water, and many other household
uses.
The Royal Charters of the 1200s
on Parisian Guilds show the growth of professional gardeners and the need for
Guilds to spread the work and to controlled who did the gardening. These Guilds
were responsible for providing chaplets, and came under the jurisdiction of the
Provost, who controlled the gardeners activities. The Guild mostly concerned
with the making and disturbing of chaplets was called ‘Chapeliers de Fleurs’.
This guild made chaplets of fresh flowers, especially roses. They also were in
charge of growing the flowers and herbs that were scattered on floors. Usually
these guilds were a family affair, this way knowledge was handed down and the
employment of the family was insured.
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In manuscripts vases or pots of flowers can be found decorating the
borders.In paintings flowers are found in many different
settings, simply arranged in vases containing a single stem (illustration to right),
placed in a portrait of the Virgin Mary with special
meaning included in the flowers, (illustration to left) found as the main
focal point for the painting, or just scattered around for color and accents
shows us that flowers could and were used for many things.
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Flowers were given as a gift in
a bouquet in a vase, in a basket, or just tied with a ribbon. Flowers were not
only given to Lovers, but to Royalty as gifts of love, loyalty, or fealty.
Plants are now seen as
decoration just about any where by the 15th century, to decorate the
elaborate family gardens, inside in vases to sit on side table against walls,
in alcoves and window sills, on mantles, and to decorate tables all through the
year. With this great demand once again on the use of flowers throughout the
year efforts were made to preserve the buds, but these efforts were not always
successful so “florists” had to resort to artificial and dried flowers.
Silk Flowers
There is mention in several books of the use of silk flowers.
In the book “Documents Relating to the
Office of the Revels in the time of Queen Elizabeth I” They have written down
that flowers were used, how they were used in some places, how much was the
cost in some places, what kind were used, and if they were made of silk. They
also have mention of the Silkweaver making flowers,
In the Medieval University
serial Razo: “La parure du chef: les chapeaux de fleurs” by Alice Planche, she
mentions the use of vases of flowers and the use of flowers made from ‘de
velours and de soie.
In “Extracts from the Accounts
of the Revels At Court, in the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James I. From
the original Office Books of the Masters and Yeomen”, they mention many
different things having been used and their costs, all the way from material
and color for what clothing to the things used as props or decorations, including
the use of silk flowers.
Also in the book “Glossaire
Archeologique, Du Moyen Age Et De La Renaissance”, they have Fleur and Fluer Artificielle in which they
talk about. (see insert below)
With this information we find
that silk flowers were used as decorations, as had been done in China and Rome.
So with this information I have
found flowers were used extensively through history. At times flowers were used
only for they medicinal purposes and in the church, but when the church relaxed
on their doctrine of paganism, flowers once again were used for
decoration.With flowers being
acceptable to the Church they also became acceptable to the people in every day
use.As time moves on so did thoughts
and regime changed and flowers became a very important part of every day life
not only in China and other countries but also in Western Europe. Whether it
was in manuscripts, paintings, in living flowers being used or artificial ones.
The next time you see a flower
arrangement try to look at it with a different perspective in mind and not just
an everyday occurrence. Consider what has been needed to make the arrangement;
the container, the greens, the flowers, the cost and the time. You may just
look twice and consider the years of hard won artistic freedom that colorful
burst of glory represents.
Bibliography
A History of Flower Arranging
by Dorothy Cooke and Pamela McNicol
Published in association with the National Association of Flower Arrangement Societies
Heinemann Professional Publishing 1989
ISBN 0-434-90252-7
This book was a treasure trove of information! Not only for
later time but all the way back to before Egyptian times! There was such
information that I had not seen in any other books and they had pictures and
sources to back them up! This is a wonderful book and a must read if your
interested in the history of flowers!
The Book of Flowers
by Catherine Donzel
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 1998
ISBN 2-08-013655-0
This book is very good on talking about the symbolism of
flowers. How they evolved through the ages and gives other leads as to where to
find more information.
The Culture of Flowers
by Jack Goody
Cambridge University Press 1993
Includes bibliographical references. 1. Ethnobotany. 2.
Ethnobotany-Africa. 3. Flowers-History. 4. Flowers-Social aspects. 5. Symbolism
of flowers.
ISBN 0 521 41441 5 (hardback)
ISBN 0 521 42484 4 (paperback)
This is a wonderful book on flowers. It covers their
meaning, use symbolism, and history from the very early times of the Pagans to
the decline during early Christians and the reasons for the decline, then back
to the full glory of the use of flowers for their beauty.
Extracts from the Accounts of the REVELS AT COURT, in
the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James I.
by Peter Cunningham
London; Printed for the Shakespeare Society 1812
This book gives the accounts of the revels and plays at
court. Telling what was used. How much was used. What was paid for the items.
Sometime sit even mentions what the items were used for.
A Manual of Church Decoration and Symbolism
The Rev. Ernest Geldart; Rector of Little Braxted
Imported by Thomas Whittaker 2&3 Bible House, New York
This book was so old it was in pieces! But I could still
read it and gleaned a lot of information from it. Decoration in general
(ancient and modern: passing and permanent). Symbolism of flowers. On making
wreaths, garlands, and other “devices” for the Church. It also gives lists of
items used and how to make the items.
Table Decoration Yesterday, Today, & Tomorrow
by Georgiana Reynolds Smith
Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc. 1968
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 68-21113
This book touches on just about all aspects of flowers and
their use. It has wonderful pictures to give examples. . It also talks about
table decorations, different things that were used and the proper way to set
and serve a table.
The Complete Guide to Flower & Foliage Arrangement
edited by Iris Webb
Webb & Bower Limited, Exeter, England 1982
ISBN 0-385-15119-5
This book has been one of the better books. It does not go
as in depth as I would like but it covers all aspects of flowers arranging. It
is more modernized but it does touch on the history of flowers and
arrangements.
Razo: Le Corps Pare: Ornements Et Atours:La parure du
chef: las chapeaux de fleurs
by Alice Planche
Faculte’ de Lettres et Sciences Hamaines, 1987
ISSN 0249-6135
This was a really hard publication to get hold of. It has wonderful information on flowers!
Glossaire Archeologique du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance
by Vitor Gay
Pairs Librairie de la Scoiete Bibliographique 1887
This is a wonderful book filled with so much interesting
information on the Renaissance. It is like a dictionary of medieval time.
Documents relating to the Office of the Revels in the time of Queen Elizabeth
Edited, with notes and indexes. By Albert Feuillerat
Louvan A. Uystpruyst 1908
A storehouse of knowledge is revealed by the list of items used by the Court
and Theater of Queen Elizabeth, some of it in her own words.
Flora Domestica A History of British Flower Arranging 1500-1930
by Mary Rose Blacker The National Trust Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
ISBN 070780380-2
Very good book for later information on flower arranging.
A History of Flower Arrangment
by Julis S. Berrall
The Viking press, New York
Library of Congress catalog card number 68-23997
Fair on the information but great for pictures!
Glass Houses A History of Greenhouses, Orangeries, and Conservatories
by May Woods and Arete Swartz Warren
Rizzoli International Publications Inc. New York, NY. 1988
ISBN 0-8478-0906-4
Architecture From Prehistory to Post-Modernism
by Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman
Harry N. Abrams,Inc. New York
ISBN 0-8109-1077-2
Treasure of Flowers
by Alice Coats
Phaidon Press Limited, London 1975
ISBN 0-07-011482-x
A Feast of Flowers
by Jacqueline Heriteau
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York 1993
ISBN 0-395-62884-9
Zen Flowers
by Henry Mittwer
Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc. of Rutland, Vermont, & Tokyo, Japan 1974
ISBN 0-8048-1882-7
Les Plantes Dans L’Antiquite et au Moyen Age
History Uasages et Symbolisme
by Charles Joret
Paris, Rue de Richelieu 1897
ILL 2753935
Medieval Gardens
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
Meriden-Stinehour Press
ISBN 0-88402-146-7
The Cottage Garden and the Old-Fashioned Flowers
by Roy Genders
Pelham Books, London
ISBN 0-7207-1442-7
Footnotes
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